How Europe Went to War in 1914

By the summer of 1914, Europe was in crisis. Just weeks earlier, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, had been assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian-backed terrorist. A few weeks later, the continent's largest armies were mobilizing against one another, and new nations seemed to join the fight every week. How did a seemingly local conflict in southeastern Europe become a world war? Why did Britain become involved?

Britain and the Empire

People often explain the beginning of the First World War as a domino effect: a chain of events that was almost inevitable. Yet if anyone in Britain had suggested in June 1914 that a world war was about to break out, most people would have been incredulous.

Britain had not fought a war on the European continent since Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo, ninety-nine years earlier. Britain was mainly occupied with its own internal affairs. At the beginning of the twentieth century, it was one of the world's greatest powers and ruled a vast global empire. Approximately one in every four people in the world owed allegiance to the British crown.

British merchant shipping connected the globe, and about sixty percent of the vessels on the world's oceans were British. The sea was the lifeblood of the British Empire. The Royal Navy protected the trade routes that allowed merchant ships to operate worldwide. This system created enormous wealth, but that wealth was not shared equally. Many overseas subjects demanded greater freedom to govern their own affairs, while domestic problems in Britain also threatened to boil over.

Britain was marked by severe inequality. Only two-thirds of men had the right to vote, and no women had voting rights. By 1914, Britain was a volatile country.

Irish Home Rule

The most divisive issue was Home Rule for Ireland. Some people in Ireland wanted the country to be governed from Dublin rather than Westminster. Others strongly opposed Home Rule, including prominent British politicians and many people in northern Ireland who considered themselves British. As the Home Rule Bill moved through Parliament, rival militias began arming themselves on both sides. There was a real danger that the dispute would become violent in the summer of 1914. Many people in Britain would therefore have been shocked to hear that the coming conflict would begin in Europe rather than in Ireland.

Tensions in Europe

At the same time, tensions were increasing across Europe. Germany was a new power with major ambitions. After Prussia defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Prussia united with other German states to create Germany. The new nation wanted an empire of its own.

Britain initially admired Germany and regarded it as a friend. However, Germany's growing industrial production, military strength, and, most importantly, its plan to build a rival fleet began to threaten Britain's sense of supremacy.

Naval Arms Race

The new German navy threatened Britain's naval dominance, which was essential to holding the empire together. Britain could not accept this challenge. The rivalry became an arms race as both nations tried to outproduce the other with increasingly advanced technology. The competition culminated in the construction of Dreadnought battleships, which were regarded as the equivalent of the nuclear weapons of their time. Britain increasingly viewed Germany as a threat, and by about 1907 Europe had divided into two opposing camps.

Alliances

Germany had disturbed Europe's delicate balance of power. France, which feared the new empire on its border, allied with Russia in the east. This was an unlikely partnership because the two countries had very different political ideologies. Germany felt surrounded and formed an alliance with Austria-Hungary and, to a lesser extent, Italy. Britain and its empire, fearing German domination of the continent, moved closer to France and Russia without formally joining their alliance.

Europe was therefore divided between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy on one side, and France, Russia, and, to some extent, Britain on the other. There was still no immediate reason for war. A crisis was needed to turn these tensions into armed conflict.

The July Crisis

That crisis came in the summer of 1914. The Balkans had long been a region of unrest, including two wars during the previous three years. Those wars had made Serbia much larger and increased tensions between Serbia and neighbouring Austria-Hungary. After Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian-backed terrorist, Austria-Hungary decided that it had to assert its dominance.

Austria-Hungary wanted to punish Serbia and suppress support for Serbian nationalism. Germany encouraged its ally. When Serbia failed to accept the terms of an extremely harsh ultimatum, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This act activated old tensions and anxieties across the continent because it brought supporters and allies on both sides into the conflict.

Russia supported Serbia as a fellow Slavic nation. Germany then declared war on Russia in support of Austria-Hungary, and France entered the war on Russia's side. Italy did not join because its agreement with Germany and Austria-Hungary was a defensive pact. Within weeks, Europe's major powers were prepared for war, but Britain had not yet decided whether to intervene.

British Involvement

Britain hesitated over whether to support Russia and France. Its central fear was German domination of Europe. A victorious and hostile Germany controlling the continent could threaten Britain's global position, which Britain considered intolerable.

The decisive issue came from Germany's war plans. Germany hoped to defeat France quickly before Russia could mobilize. To bypass the French defenses in Alsace-Lorraine, Germany planned to attack through neutral Belgium, a country Britain had promised to protect.

On August 4, Britain issued Germany an ultimatum. Germany ignored it, so Britain declared war. Because Britain declared war, the British Empire also entered the conflict. A European crisis rapidly became a world war.

Conclusion

The causes of the First World War are complex and remain debated. At the time, governments believed they were defending their national interests. Their actions nevertheless created a war that shaped Europe for decades. Most participants expected the war to end by Christmas, but the conflict lasted far longer.

The First World War became a total war. Millions of men fought on land, at sea, and in the air, while modern weapons caused mass casualties. The war destroyed or broke apart the German, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian empires. It brought the United States onto the world stage and helped create the conditions for later conflicts, including conflicts in the Middle East. In this way, the war shaped Europe and the wider world throughout the twentieth century.